Leaves are best picked young and tender in spring and early summer, but can often be picked all year round. Some will turn bitter when the plant starts flowering. They are high in minerals, vitamins, chlorophyll, as well as some protein which can be extracted from bulk material and processed into leaf curd.

To safeguard the plant's future availability, as well as its survival, it is best to take only a few leaves from each plant. Where the plant is plentiful and the leaves are small, and the stem tender, the whole plant can be consumed.

Unless otherwise stated, leaves can be eaten raw and added to salads. They can also be cooked in any way cultivated greens are cooked, though wild plants are often bitter or have a strong flavour, and are best mixed with other, more palatable foods or flavoured with condiments. To reduce bitterness in leaves try standing them in water overnight.

Some leaves have strong pungent or spicy flavours and are best used in small quantities for flavouring. Taste before picking any quantity.

Most leaves can be dried to store, however, drying may change the chemical composition of some plants. Check plant details for more information.

Some leaves can be stored alive for several days, even up to a week or two in a cool place, by standing them in water the way cut flowers are kept. Large leaves with stems can be stored like this individually (e.g. Ramson, Sea Beat etc.), or left on a common stalk if the leaves are small. Change the water daily and add a little sugar to help them keep fresh longer.

Leaf Curd - High Protein Food

Leaves contain in varying amounts protein, a macro nutrient difficult to obtain in the wild all year round. To get enough protein from eating leaves, one would have to chew one's way through large piles of them, and risk diarrhoea, or worse, in the process. Some plants, like trees and grasses, whose leaves are not palatable or digestible could still yield an acceptable and highly nutritious food, leaf curd, by means of a relatively simple process. Separating out the protein also leaves behind most (but not all!) nitrates, oxalic acid, tannin, saponins and other plant toxins, but also many other nutrients. This process is used to obtain mainly a high-protein food.

Leaf curd made from one laundry basket of nettles

To make leaf curd, leaves need to be juiced first (see notes on juicing on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page). The highest juice yield comes from fresh leaves, picked in the morning and processed immediately. The juice is heated rapidly to boiling point. The protein coagulates (familiar from boiling eggs) and floats to the surface as small grains, which are strained from the liquid and can either be eaten in this moist grainy state if safe laves are used, or washed, pressed into tofu-like curds and dried for storage, and is later reconstituted.

An alternative method is to boil some water and dribble the juice into the boiling water where it coagulates immediately.

Large quantities of plant matter are needed to obtain a portion of leaf curd. About a laundry basket of Stinging Nettles (high protein content) will yield about a cup of curd, before pressing, as seen in the above photo.

Avoid leaves from plants known to be poisonous, e.g. leaves from any member of the genus Prunus, as well as old discoloured leaves. Leaves which yield a mucilaginous juice (e.g. Rosebay Willowherb and Mallows) or producing a very fine curdled grain which is difficult to separate out, are not suitable.

The protein from the juice may also curdle in an acidic liquid. The juice of leaves which are high in acid, like Japanese Knotweed or Sorrel which contain oxalic acid, may not need heating to form grains (not tested).

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony, Common Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - raw -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - raw -
Archangel, Yellow Lamiastrum galeobdolon - cooked
Arrowhead, Hawaii Sagittaria sagittifolia - raw
Aster, Sea Aster tripolium - cooked
Avens, Purple Geum rivale - flavouring, tea
Barberry, Common Berberis vulgaris - raw -
Basil, Ascending Wild Calamintha ascendens - flavouring
Basil, Wild Clinopodium vulgare - raw, flavouring
Bear Garlic Allium ursinum - raw -
Bedstraw, Sweetscented Galium odoratum - raw, flavouring -
Bedstraw, Yellow Spring Galium verum - raw
Beech Fagus sylvatica - raw -
Beet, Sea Beta vulgaris maritima - raw
Bellflower, Bluebell Campanula rotundifolia - raw
Bellflower, Rampion Campanula rapunculoides - raw
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Bindweed, Hedge Calystegia sepium - cooked -
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - raw
Bishop's Goutweed Aegopodium podagraria - raw -
Bistort, Meadow Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Bittercress Barbarea vulgaris - raw -
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - raw
Blackberry, Shrubby Rubus fruticosus - raw, young buds -
Blackcurrant, European Ribes nigrum - cooked
Blueberry, Bog Vaccinium uliginosum - tea -
Borage, Common Borago officinalis - raw -
Broom, Scotch Cytisus scoparius - raw -
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum - raw -
Bugle, Common Ajuga reptans - raw -
Bugloss, Common Viper's Echium vulgare - raw -
Burdock, Great Arctium lappa - raw -
Burnet, Official Sanguisorba officinalis - raw
Burnet, Small Sanguisorba minor - raw
Buttercup, Creeping Ranunculus repens - cooked -
Buttercup, Cursed Ranunculus sceleratus - cooked -
Buttercup, Fig Ranunculus ficaria - before flowering, raw -
Buttercup, Tall Ranunculus acris - cooked -
Cabbage, Wild Brassica oleracea - raw
Calamus Acorus calamus - young - raw -
Campion, Bladder Silene vulgaris - raw -
Catsear, Common Hypochoeris radicata - raw
Cattail, Broadleaf Typha latifolia - raw
Celandine Chelidonium majus - leached, cooked
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - raw -
Chamomile, Stinking Anthemis cotula - flavouring -
Chervil, Wild Anthriscus sylvestris - raw -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - raw -
Chickweed, Common Mouse-ear Cerastium fontanum - raw
Chickweed, Sticky Cerastium glomeratum - details unknown
Chicory Cichorium intybus - raw -
Chives, Wild Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Cicely, Sweet Myrrhis odorata - raw -
Cinquefoil, Creeping Potentilla reptans - raw
Cinquefoil, Silverweed Argentina anserina - raw
Clary, Wild Salvia horminoides raw - rare plant
Cleavers Galium aparine - juiced, cooked -
Clover, Bird Trigonella ornithopodioides - raw
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - raw -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - young - raw -
Clover, Yellow Medicago lupulina - cooked -
Codlins-and-cream Epilobium hirsutum raw - details unknown -
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - young - raw -
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - raw -
Cornsalad, Lewiston Valerianella locusta - raw
Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus - tea
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - raw
Cuckoo Pint Arum maculatum - cooked -
Daisy, Corn Chrysanthemum segetum - cooked -
Daisy, Lawn Bellis perennis - raw
Daisy, Ox-eye Chrysanthemum leucanthemum - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Deadnettle, Henbit Lamium amplexicaule - raw
Deadnettle, Purple Lamium purpureum - raw
Deadnettle, White Lamium album - raw
Dock, Curly Rumex crispus - raw -
Dock, Patience Rumex patientia - details unknown
Dropwort Filipendula vulgaris - raw
Duckweed, Common Lemna minor - details unknown
False Baby's Breath Galium mollugo - raw
Fennel, Sweet Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Fig, Hottentot Carpobrotus edulis - raw
Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium - raw
Fumitory, Drug Fumaria officinalis - curdling agent
Gale, Sweet Myrica gale - flavouring -
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Geranium, Cut-leaved Geranium dissectum - raw
Goldenrod Solidago virgaurea - tea - safety unknown
Good King Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus - cooked -
Gooseberry Ribes uva-crispa - young - raw -
Goosefoot, Red Chenopodium rubrum - cooked -
Grass - leaf curd, juiced -
Ground Ivy Glechoma hederacea - raw -
Hawkbit, Bristly Leontodon hispidus - raw
Hawk's Beard Crepsis tectorum - young - cooked
Hawthorn, Oneseed Crataegus monogyna - young - raw -
Hedgenettle, Common Stachys officinalis - tea
Herb Bennet Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Herb Sophia Descurainia sophia - cooked
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - raw
Hop, Common Humulus lupulus - raw -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - raw -
Iceland Moss Cetraria islandica - leach for jelly, cooked - safety unknown
Juniper, Common Juniperus communis - tea - rare plant -
Kenilworth Ivy Cymbalaria muralis - raw -
Knotgrass, Common Polygonum aviculare - raw -
Knotweed, Curlytop Persicaria lapathifolia - raw -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - cooked -
Lady's Mantle, Hairy Alchemilla vulgaris - raw
Lambsquarters Chenopodium album - cooked -
Leek, Broadleaf Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Lettuce, Bitter Lactuca virosa - raw -
Lettuce, Miner's Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Lettuce, Wall Mycelis muralis - raw
Licorice Root Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea - tea -
Loosestrife, Garden Lysimachia vulgaris - young - details and safety unknown
Loosestrife, Purple Lythrum salicaria - cooked
Loosestrife, Spatulaleaf Lythrum portula - raw
Lungwort, Common Pulmonaria offinialis - raw
Maidenhair, Common Adiantum capillis-veneris - cooked -
Mallow, Common Marsh Althaea officinalis - raw
Mallow, High Malva sylvestris - raw -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Maple Acer spp. - details unknown
Maple, Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - details unknown
Marigold, Yellow Marsh Caltha palustris - young - cooked -
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - cooked -
Mignonette, Yellow Reseda lutea - raw
Milkwort, Common Polygala vulgaris - tea -
Mint, Apple Mentha rotundifolia - flavouring -
Mint, Corsican Mentha requienii - flavouring -
Mint, Eau-de-Cologne Mentha citrata - flavouring -
Mint, Water Mentha aquatica - flavouring -
Mint, Wild Mentha arvensis - flavouring -
Monkey-flower, Common Mimulus guttatus - raw
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - raw -
Mustard, Charlock Sinapis arvensis - raw -
Mustard, Field Brassica rapa - raw
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - raw
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - raw -
Mustard, White Sinapis alba - raw -
Nettle, Stinging Urtica dioica - cooked, leaf curd, juiced -
Nipplewort Lapsana communis - raw
Old-man-in-the-spring Senecio vulgaris - raw -
Onion, Largeflower Allium macropetalum - raw -
Orache, Spear-leaved Atriplex hastata - cooked -
Oregano Origanum vulgare - flavouring - safety unknown
Orpine Hylotelephium telephium - raw -
Ox-tongue, Bristly Picris echioides - raw
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - raw
Parsley Piert Aphanes arvensis - raw
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - cooked -
Pea, Beach Lathyrus japonicus - raw -
Pennycress, Field Thlaspi arvense - raw
Pennyroyal Mentha pulegium - flavouring -
Peppermint Mentha piperita - flavouring -
Pepperweed, Broadleaved Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Pimpernel, Scarlet Anagallis arvensis - raw -
Pine Pinus spp - tea
Plantain, Buck's Horn Plantago coronopus - raw - safety unknown
Plantain, Narrowleaf Plantago lanceolata - raw
Poppy, Corn Papaver rhoeas - raw (before flowering) -
Primrose Primula L. - raw
Primrose, Cowslip Primula veris - raw -
Purslane, Sea Atriplex portulacoides - raw
Quackgrass Elytrigia repens - leaf curd, juiced
Queen of the Meadow Filipendula ulmaria - cooked, tea -
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Rampion Campanula rapunculus - raw
Rape Brassica napus - raw -
Raspberry, American Red Rubus idaeus - tea -
Redshank Polygonum persicaria - raw -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - partly unfolded - cooked
Rhubarb, Monk's Rumex alpinus - details unknown -
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - tea -
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - raw
Ryegrass, Perennial Lolium perenne - leaf curd, juiced -
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - raw -
Saxifrage, Golden Chrysosplenium oppositifolium - raw
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - raw
Selfheal, Common Prunella vulgaris - raw
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Sorrel, Garden Rumex acetosa - raw -
Sowthistle, Common Sonchus oleraceus - raw -
Sowthistle, Field Sonchus arvensis - raw -
Sow Thistle, Spiny Sonchus asper - raw -
Spear Saltbush Atriplex patula - raw -
Spearmint Mentha spicata - flavouring -
Speedwell, European Veronica beccabunga - raw
Speedwell, Germander Veronica chamaedrys - tea - safety unknown
Spoonwort Cochlearia officinalis - raw - high in Vitamin C
Spruce Picea spp. - raw
Stonecrop, Goldmoss Sedum acre - raw -
Stonecrop, Jenny's Sedum reflexum - raw -
Stork's-bill, Redstem Erodium cicutarium - raw
Strawberry, Woodland Fragaria vesca - raw
Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilotus officinalis - raw, flavouring -
Swinecress, Greater Coronopus squamatus - cooked
Tansy, Common Tanacetum vulgare - flavouring -
Tare, Tiny Vicia hirsuta - cooked
Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Thistle, Canada Cirsium arvense - raw -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - raw -
Thistle, (Blessed) Milk Silybum marianum - raw -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - raw
Thrift Armeria maritima - cooked - safety unknown
Turnip, St. Anthony's Ranunculus bulbosus - cooked -
Valerian, Garden Valeriana officinalis - flavouring -
Valerian, Red Centranthus ruber - raw
Vetch, Bird Vicia cracca - cooked
Vetch, Garden Vicia sativa - cooked -
Violet, Sweet Viola odorata - raw
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -
Watercress Nasturtium officinale - raw -
Whitetop Lepidium draba (syn. Cardaria draba) - flavouring -
Whitlow Grass, Wall Draba muralis - raw - high in Vitamin C
Whortleberry Vaccinium myrtillus - tea
Wintergreen, Snowline Pyrola minor - raw
Woodsorrel, Common Oxalis acetosella - raw -
Wormwood, Common Artemisia vulgaris - raw -
Yarrow Achillea millefolium - raw -

Bark

The inner bark of some trees can be eaten to obtain carbohydrates. It is best eaten cooked and ground up. Remove narrow vertical strips of the outer bark near the base of the tree and strip off the inner bark with a knife. This is easiest in the spring when the sap is rising when it is also most palatable with the raised sugar content. Avoid ring-barking the tree as this will kill it. The bark of some trees, including some common ones (e.g. trees and shrubs of the Prunus genus), is toxic.

This is famine food only.

Suitable trees:
Aspen, Birch, Maples, Pine, Poplar, Spruce, Willow (caution: contains salicylic acid, avoid if sensitive to Aspirin)

Herb stems

Where the leaves of a plant are edible and the stem is soft, it may be eaten together with the leaves. The stems of some plants are soft when young, but turn woody later, and can only be consumed as shoots, or when their outer skin is removed.

Remove tough fibrous parts, and any thorns or prickles, barbs or tough hairs, as they may not soften when cooked.

See also "Sap" below.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony, Common Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - raw -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - raw -
Archangel, Yellow Lamiastrum galeobdolon - shoot - cooked
Arrowhead, Hawaii Sagittaria sagittifolia - shoot - cooked
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis - shoot - raw -
Aster, Sea Aster tripolium - cooked
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - shoot - raw
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - inner bark - flour
Blackberry, Shrubby Rubus fruticosus - raw, young, peeled -
Bur-reed, Simplestem Sparganium erectum - base - cooked
Burdock, Greater Arctium lappa - young - raw -
Burnet, Small Sanguisorba minor - young - raw
Burnet, Official Sanguisorba officinalis - young - raw
Butter and Egg Linaria vulgaris - shoot - cooked -
Calamus Acorus calamus - shoot - raw -
Campion, Bladder Silene vulgaris - shoot - raw -
Cattail, Broadleaf Typha latifolia - shoot - raw
Chamomile, German Matricaria recutita - shoot - safety unknown
Chamomile, Roman Chamaemelum nobile - shoot - flavouring, tea -
Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chaerophyllum bulbosum - shoot - raw -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - raw -
Chickweed, Common Mouse-ear Cerastium fontanum young - cooked
Chickweed, Sticky Cerastium glomeratum - shoot - details unknown
Cinquefoil, Silverweed Argentina anserina - young shoots - raw
Clematis, Evergreen Clematis vitalba - shoot - cooked -
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - shoot - raw
Daisy, Corn Chrysanthemum segetum - shoots - cooked -
Devilsbit Succisa pratensis - shoots - raw
Dock, Curly Rumex crispus - raw -
Evening Primrose, Common Oenothera biennis - shoot - raw -
Evening Primrose, Redsepal Oenothera glazioviana - shoot - raw
Fennel, Sweet Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium - young shoots - raw, later - cooked
Fumitory, Drug Fumaria officinalis - curdling agent
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Glasswort, Slender Salicornia europaea - shoot - cooked -
Gorse, Common Ulex europaeus - shoot tips - tea -
Heather Calluna vulgaris - shoots - tea
Hedgenettle, Marsh Stachys palustris - shoots - cooked
Herb Sophia Descurainia sophia - shoot - cooked
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - inner - raw
Hop, Common Humulus lupulus - shoot - cooked -
Horsetail, Field Equisetum arvense - fertile - cooked -
Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon Tragopogon pratensis - shoot - raw
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - shoot - cooked -
Licorice Root Ligusticum scoticum - shoot - raw, flavouring -
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - shoot - cooked -
Mustard, Charlock Sinapis arvensis - cooked -
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - raw -
Parsnip, Cow Heracleum maximum - shoot - raw -
Pyrenese Star of Bethlehem Ornithogalum pyrenaicum - shoots - cooked -
Raspberry, American Red Rubus idaeus - young - cooked -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - shoot - raw
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - shoot - raw - safety unknown
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - shoot - raw -
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - shoots - raw
Sowthistle, Common Sonchus oleraceus - peeled - cooked -
Sowthistle, Field Sonchus arvensis - shoots - cooked -
Sow Thistle, Spiny Sonchus asper - raw -
Spruce Picea spp. - inner bark - cooked
Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilotus officinalis - shoot - cooked -
Tare, Tiny Vicia hirsuta - shoot - cooked
Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Thistle, Canada Cirsium arvense - peeled - cooked -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - raw -
Thistle, (Blessed) Milk Silybum marianum - peeled - raw -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - shoot - raw
Vetch, Bird Vicia cracca - shoots - cooked
Vetch, Garden Vicia sativa - shoots - cooked -
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -

Trees

Some trees yield a sugar-rich sap which can be drunk raw, fermented into alcoholic beverages or gently boiled down to syrup (10 litres or more sap makes approx. 1 litre syrup).

The most copious flow is approximately during the first half of March, with up to 2 litres per day. Yield varies with species, as does the sugar content.

Fresh sap can spoil within a day or two (becomes cloudy and sour). Store syrup in an airtight container and place in a cool place. This syrup can become mouldy. To store for extended periods, the syrup should be sterilised. Adding 4-6 cloves and a little cinnamon may help to preserve it longer (untested by author).

Yield is best when nights are frosty, and days are warm and sunny.

Drilling Method

Drill a hole in the lower trunk, approximately 30mm deep, angled slightly upwards and the diameter of the tube used (10-20mm) giving a tight fit to prevent leakage. Insert one end of some plastic tube partway into the hole and the other end into a container, covering the opening with cloth to exclude leaves, insects etc., but allowing air to be expelled as the container fills up.

To protect the tree from damage, insert a tight-fitting wooden plug after tapping is complete, and seal any leaks with wax or proprietary sealing compound. Do not tap for more than two days, and tap the same tree every other year maximum. Tap only mature trees.

Twig Method

The easy way to tap a tree is by simply cutting, or even breaking off the end of some thin branches. Put the ends of the branches into the neck of a bottle, tie the bottle to the branches and gently weigh them down to make sure the bottle hangs in as upright a position as possible. Branches want to point upwards. You can tie a small log or other weight to the branches, tie them to vegetation below or lean a long stick of the right weight onto the branches to make them bend down.

Easier still, is to use a plastic bag instead of a bottle, but make sure first that the bag does not leak, or that there are no nearby branches or sharp objects which can puncture the bag, even in a breeze. Secure it with string or an elastic band.

There is no need for any sealing after the tapping. The small twigs will heal over by themselves. However, bear in mind that they will continue to drip for several days during the height of the short flow season. Towards the end of the flow season they will stop within a day or less.

This method is suitable for any tree where the branches are easy to reach, and can be done on younger trees.

For more in-depth information on tree sap harvesting and processing go to the web article via this pop-up browser and also follow the links on the page and comments below the post (requires internet connection).

Other Plants

All plants will contain some sap in their tissue which can be extracted as juice through various juicing methods, provided the plant is non-toxic. One plant, in particular, will also yield a sugar-rich sap from its stem - the Common Reed, Phragmitis australis.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Birch Betula spp. - raw
Maple* Acer spp. - raw, syrup
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - raw
Maple, Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - raw, syrup
Walnut, English* Juglans regia - raw, syrup

* high in sugar

Other Suitable trees:
Larch spp.

Includes other underground parts: bulbs, tubers, rhizomes etc.

Roots are the energy storehouse of plants and often store extra reserves during dormancy (perennial herbs). They are often rich in carbohydrates, a macro nutrient difficult to find throughout the year in nature in quantities needed for sustained energy. Unlike seeds, they usually evade being eaten by animals.

Although many roots are edible, and those of perennial plants are available all year round, in practice there are several problems with collecting them. It is difficult to identify dormant roots without the rest of the plant, unless very distinct. They are often very tough and small, especially when the energy is in the growing plant. It is illegal to dig up plants without the permission of the land owner, and once the root is dug up, the plant is effectively destroyed. However, their rich nutrient content sometimes justifies collection.

Roots should be well scrubbed, especially when they are eaten raw. They are digested most easily cooked. Tough, or very bitter skin should be removed. To reduce cooking time cut into small pieces. Some roots contain toxic substances, and where indicated, should be soaked and cooked in several changes of water, ideally after pulping the root and containing the pulp in a muslin bag.

The most efficient way to pulp small roots for juicing is crushing. Larger roots can also be juiced by crushing or by grating teeth as in centrifugal type juicers, or the 'Champion' juicer, which also has tiny teeth, but arranged along a cylinder.

It is also possible to make a fizzy lactic soda drink - a kind of root beer or variation on ginger ale, with roots. Roots carry anaerobic lactic bacteria which are beneficial to health. For more information and a link to step-by-step instructions read the Lactofermentation section on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page.

Roots are best collected

The roots of some plants are able to regenerate from small fragments (e.g. Japanese Knotweed). When digging for roots of invasive perennials, remove all fragments and destroy by safe means, such as burning or maceration in water until they are liquefied.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Roots shown in colour indicate those which are known to be more than just thread-size. However, others may be worth investigating.

Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - cooked -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - cooked -
Arrowhead, Hawaii Sagittaria sagittifolia - avoid, rare
Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Avens, Purple Geum rivale - flavouring, tea
Bear Garlic Allium ursinum - bulb - raw -
Beet, Sea Beta vulgaris maritima - raw -
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Bellflower, Rampion Campanula rapunculoides - raw
Bindweed, Hedge Calystegia sepium - cooked, starch -
Bistort, Meadow Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Blackberry, Shrubby Rubus fruticosus - cooked -
Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata - cooked -
Bracken Pteridium aquilium - cooked -
Bulrush, Cosmopolitan Scirpus maritimus - flour
Bur-reed, Simplestem Sparganium erectum - cooked
Burdock, Greater Arctium lappa - raw -
Buttercup, Creeping Ranunculus repens - cooked -
Buttercup, Fig Ranunculus ficaria - after plant has withered, cooked -
Calamus Acorus calamus - peeled - raw -
Cattail, Broadleaf Typha latifolia - raw
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - cooked -
Chervil, Wild Anthriscus sylvestris - cooked -
Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chaerophyllum bulbosum - raw -
Chicory Cichorium intybus - cooked, roasted -
Chives, Wild Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Cicely, Sweet Myrrhis odorata - raw -
Cinquefoil, Erect Potentilla erecta - leached and cooked -
Cinquefoil, Silverweed Argentina anserina - raw, starch
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - cooked -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - cooked -
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - raw -
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - cooked, flavouring -
Cuckoo Pint Arum maculatum - leached and cooked -
Daisy, Ox-eye Chrysanthemum leucanthemum - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Dropwort Filipendula vulgaris - raw
Eryngo, Seaside Eryngium maritimum - raw - rare plant -
Evening Primrose, Common Oenothera biennis - cooked -
Evening Primrose, Redsepal Oenothera glazioviana - cooked
Fennel, Sweet Foeniculum vulgare - cooked -
Figwort, Woodland Scrophularia nodosa - cooked
Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium - raw
Galingale Cyperus longus - flavouring - rare plant
Geranium, Cut-leaved Geranium dissectum - cooked
Gypsywort Lycopus europaeus - raw
Hawkbit, Bristly Leontodon hispidus - roasted, beverage
Hedgenettle, Common Stachys officinalis - raw
Hedgenettle, Marsh Stachys palustris - raw
Herb Bennet Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - starch
Hop, Common Humulus lupulus - details unknown -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - flavouring -
Horsetail, Field Equisetum arvense - cooked -
Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon Tragopogon pratensis - raw
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - cooked -
Lady's Mantle, Hairy Alchemilla vulgaris - cooked
Leek, Broadleaf Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Lettuce, Miner's Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Licorice Root Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Loosestrife, Purple Lythrum salicaria - cooked
Mallow, Common Marsh Althaea officinalis - raw
Marigold, Yellow Marsh Caltha palustris - cooked -
Milkvetch, Licorice Astragalus glycyphyllus - raw, condensed juice
Mustard, Field Brassica rapa - raw
Onion, Largeflower Allium macropetalum - raw -
Orpine Hylotelephium telephium - cooked -
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - details unknown
Parsnip, Cow Heracleum Maximum - cooked -
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - raw -
Pepperweed, Broadleaved Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Plantain, European Water Alisma plantago-aquatica - leached and cooked -
Pond-lily, Yellow Nuphar advena - raw
Quackgrass Elytrigia repens - cooked
Queen Ann's Lace Daucus carota - cooked -
Queen of the Meadow Filipendula ulmaria - cooked -
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Rampion Campanula rapunculus - raw
Raspberry, American Red Rubus idaeus - cooked -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - cooked
Restharrow, Common Ononis repens - raw
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - details unknown
Rush, Flowering Butomus umbellatus - cooked
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - raw - safety unknown
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - raw
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Sleepydick Ornithogalum umbellatum - bulb - raw -
Sorrel, Garden Rumex acetosa - cooked -
Sow-thistle, Common Sonchus oleraceus - cooked -
Sowthistle, Field Sonchus arvensis - cooked, roasted -
Sow Thistle, Spiny Sonchus asper - cooked -
Strawberry, Woodland Fragaria vesca - cooked
Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilotus officinalis - details unknown -
Swinecress, Greater Coronopus squamatus - cooked
Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Thistle, Canada Cirsium arvense - raw -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - young - cooked -
Thistle, (Blessed) Milk Silybum marianum - raw -
Thrift Armeria maritima - details unknown - safety unknown
Turnip, St. Anthony's Ranunculus bulbosus - cooked -
Valerian, Red Centranthus ruber - cooked
Water-lily, White Nymphaea alba - cooked -
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -

Flowers, unless very plentiful, are best left for insects who depend on them for survival, and to allow the plant to seed or develop fruit. Some flowers may be the sole food of important or even rare insects, whilst they are mostly of negligible value to humans, and many plants, especially annuals, rely on flowers to set seed to ensure the genetic survival.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony, Common Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - buds - raw -
Bear Garlic Allium ursinum - raw -
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - raw
Bittercress Barbarea vulgaris - buds - cooked -
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - raw
Blackthorn Prunus spinosa - raw -
Borage, Common Borago officinalis - raw -
Cattail, Broadleaf Typha latifolia - immature, pollen - raw
Chamomile, German Matricaria recutita - tea
Chamomile, Roman Chamaemelum nobile - flavouring, tea -
Chicory Cichorium intybus - raw -
Chives, Wild Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Clary, Wild Salvia horminoides raw - rare plant
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - raw -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - raw -
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - flavouring -
Cornsalad, Lewiston Valerianella locusta - raw
Creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia - tea
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - bud - raw
Daisy, Lawn Bellis perennis - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Deadnettle, White Lamium album - raw
Elderberry, Black Sambucus nigra - raw -
Fennel, Sweet Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium - flavouring
Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium - buds - raw
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Gorse, Common Ulex europaeus - pickled -
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - tea -
Hedgenettle, Common Stachys officinalis - tea
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - raw
Hop, Common Humulus lupulus - female - details unknown -
Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon Tragopogon pratensis - raw
Kidneyvetch, Common Anthyllis vulneraria - tea - safety unknown
Knapweed, Lesser Centaurea nigra - petals - raw
Leek, Broadleaf Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Lettuce, Miner's Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Licorice Root Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Mallow, High Malva sylvestris - raw -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Mayweed, Disc Matricaria discoidea - raw, tea -
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - buds - cooked -
Mustard, Charlock Sinapis arvensis - cooked -
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - raw
Onion, Largeflower Allium macropetalum - raw -
Oregon Grape Mahonia aquifolium - raw
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - raw
Primrose Primula L. - raw
Primrose, Cowslip Primula veris - raw -
Queen of the Meadow Filipendula ulmaria - flavouring, tea -
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - raw -
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - raw
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - raw - safety unknown
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - bud - cooked
Sorrel, Garden Rumex acetosa - cooked -
Spruce Picea spp. - male: raw, female: cooked
St. John's Wort, Common Hypericum perforatum - tea -
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare - flavouring -
Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare - bud - cooked -
Thistle, (Blessed) Milk Silybum marianum - bud - cooked -
Violet, Sweet Viola odorata - raw
Woodsorrel, Common Oxalis acetosella - raw -

Most fruit wants to be eaten in order to disperse the seed. The only ethical question is, who should eat it? Ownership and fair use would answer the question about humans, however, a lot of wildlife relies on fruit for survival, and it is therefor unfair to strip a plant, even if there is no human competition. Foxes, for example, will eat blackberries almost as a staple during fruiting periods, I see the seed-speckled purple evidence every late summer!

Fruit is high in vitamins and minerals, and some (especially the blue-black types) are high in antioxidant flavenoids, as well as sugar for energy.

Very palatable fruit may be gathered in the wild, often escapees from gardens, and may be found well removed from human habitation where birds take the seed into the depth of the countryside, or where a cottage may have stood many years ago.

Fruit from wild plants can be preserved in the same way as domesticated varieties. Berries may be dried whole like raisins whilst larger fruit should be thinly sliced before placing in a dehydrator, solar or otherwise. Sliced fruit may also be dried by stringing on thin twine and hung in a warm, well ventilated place. This may take up to ten days, and the fruit should be protected from moisture and insects. Fruit picked for jellies should be only just ripe.

Making Fruit Leather from Haws

This method was shown on TV by British bushcraft expert Ray Mears. Place raw haws in a large bowl and crush between hands. The pulp should be semi-liquid. If it is too dry add a few drops of water. Skim skins and stones with hands and squeeze out remaining juicy pulp. After a few minutes it will start to firm up into a jelly. Haws are high in pectin, which helps this firming up process. When firm enough cut thin slices and dry these in the sun, a well ventilated warm place or in a dehydrator.

However, Ray Mears has strong hands, and it looked easy when he did it, but, like me, you may find it not quite so easy. An untried method, which probably works well, and allows the nutritious skins to be included, is to use a colander or other hole (rather than wire) sieve with holes only just smaller than the seeds. Press the haws through holes and proceed as above. A small amount of cider vinegar or lemon juice mixed in may prevent oxidation where the fruit pulp turns dark on exposure to air.

This process may also work with other pulpy fruit (untried).

Making Raw Syrup

The juice of fruit can be drawn from it by sugar which is hydrophilic. This process preserves more of the nutrients. It works best with berries, especially soft berries. Rose hips should be fully ripe. It also makes very tart berries more palatable.

Prick the fruit a few times with a needle or other clean, pointed object. Layer the fruit in a jar with a generous sprinkling of sugar between each layer. A tall, narrow jar works better than a wide shallow one. It reduces the surface area where mould can form. As the juice is drawn it dissolves the sugar and forms a syrup which surrounds the fruit. A covering of syrup helps to prevent mould forming on the surface. If it does form, remove and add concentrated sugar water to cover the fruit.

Leave in a cool place until the liquid surrounding the fruit is a rich colour, having absorbed much of the juice. The syrup can be used to flavour drinks or desserts, or used as a remedy or tonic where appropriate. A healthy fizzy lactic drink can be made with other additions. See the Lactofermentation section on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page. The fruit may also be eaten, though check the details of individual plants for any exceptions where seeds may be poisonous or irritant.

As a rough guide for making sugar water for syrup use sugar and water in equal weights.

Always use clean containers and tools, although sterilisation is not necessary. Cover jar to exclude insects and dust.

Honey is not suitable as a sugar substitute if the syrup is used to make a lactic drink, as honey is slightly antiseptic and prevents the lactic bacilli from doing their job.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Barberry, Common Berberis vulgaris - raw -
Blackberry, Shrubby Rubus fruticosus - raw -
Blackcurrant, European Ribes nigrum - raw
Blackthorn Prunus spinosa - raw, jelly, flavouring, syrup -
Blueberry, Bog Vaccinium uliginosum - raw -
Buckthorn, Sea Hippophae rhamnoides - raw - high in Vitamin C
Checkertree Sorbus torminalis - raw (bletted - nearly rotten) -
Cherry, Cornelian Cornus mas - raw
Cherry, European Bird Prunus padus - raw -
Cherry, Sour Prunus cerasus - raw -
Cherry, Sweet Prunus avium - raw -
Chess-apple Sorbus aria - raw (when nearly rotten) -
Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus - raw
Cornel, Lapland Cornus suecica - raw
Crabapple Malus sylvestris - raw -
Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus - raw
Crowberry, Black Empetrum nigrum - raw -
Currant, Cultivated Ribes rubrum - raw -
Dewberry, European Rubus caesius - raw -
Dogwood, Common Cornus sanguinea - cooked -
Elderberry, Black Sambucus nigra - raw -
Fig, Hottentot Carpobrotus edulis - raw
Gale, Sweet Myrica gale - flavouring -
Gooseberry Ribes uva-crispa - raw -
Guelder Rose Viburnum opulus - raw -
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - raw -
Juniper, Common Juniperus communis - flavouring, tea - rare plant -
Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea - raw -
Medlar Mespilus germanica - raw (best bletted - when nearly rotten) -
Mountain Ash Sorbus aucuparia - cooked, jelly -
Mulberry Morus ssp - raw
Oregon Grape Mahonia aquifolium - raw
Pear, Common Pyrus communis - when nearly rotten - cooked
Plum, Cherry Prunus cerasifera - raw -
Plum, European Prunus domestica - raw -
Raspberry, American Red Rubus idaeus - raw -
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - raw -
Snowberry, Common Symphoricarpos albus - raw -
Strawberry, Woodland Fragaria vesca - raw
Strawberry Tree Arbutus unedo - raw
Wintergreen, Snowline Pyrola minor - details unknown
Whortleberry Vaccinium myrtillus - raw

Seeds, including nuts, are a good source of carbohydrates (including fat) and protein, macro nutrients which are difficult to find in plant sources. Seeds from herbs are sometimes aromatic and best used as spices. Taste before harvesting any quantity.

Keep in a dry place, remove any outer casing, especially green fleshy parts which may rot. Some green outer parts, like the leafy cap of the hazel nut, may also draw moisture from the seed as it transpires, leaving a shrivelled nut inside.

Some trees and shrubs only produce nuts every few years and yield can vary when they do crop. It is best to gather these nuts only in good years unless in real need, as wildlife may depend on the crop for survival.

Wild grass seeds are too small to bother with for flour. Most grains have an outer husk which needs to be removed.

Very small seeds just pass through the body and cannot be digested unless well chewed or mechanically cracked with a seed/grain mill or a mortar and pestle, which also releases more flavour.

Sprouting

Sprouted seeds are more nutritious, and often easier to digest than the dormant seed. In practice, however, not all seeds of wild plants are suitable or safe to sprout. Many wild plant seeds need to undergo changes in temperature, have specific light requirements and long germination periods which makes sprouting a complicated and drawn out process. Only those seeds which germinate within less than a week and without complex requirements are suitable.

If the seed, stem and leaves are considered safe to eat, then the sprouted seed is safe as well.

Seeds of pulses, which are often not safe to eat raw, may be safe after sprouting.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony, Common Agrimonia eupatoria - cooked
Angelica Angelica archangelica - flavouring -
Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Barley, Mouse Hordeum murinum - flour
Bedstraw, Yellow Spring Galium verum - details unknown
Beech Fagus sylvatica - raw, oil -
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - flour
Bistort, Meadow Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - sprouted, though small and fiddly
Broom, Scotch Cytisus scoparius - roasted -
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum - raw, sprouted -
Bulrush, Cosmopolitan Scirpus maritimus - flour
Cattail, Broadleaf Typha latifolia - raw, flour
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - flavouring -
Cherry, Cornelian Cornus mas - roasted
Cherry, European Bird Prunus padus - raw, if not bitter -
Cherry, Sour Prunus cerasus - raw, if not bitter -
Cherry, Sweet Prunus avium - raw, if not bitter -
Chestnut, European Castanea sativa - cooked
Chestnut, Horse Aesculus hippocastanum - fully ripe, leached and cooked -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - cooked -
Cleavers Galium aparine - roasted, sprouted -
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - sprouted -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - flour -
Clover, Yellow Medicago lupulina - sprouted -
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - cooked, flavouring -
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Dock, Curly Rumex crispus - raw -
Evening Primrose, Common Oenothera biennis - cooked, oil -
Evening Primrose, Redsepel Oenothera glazioviana - raw
Fennel, Sweet Foeniculum vulgare - flavouring, sprouted -
Filbert, Common Corylus avellana - raw
Flag, Yellow Iris pseudacorus - cooked -
Glasswort, Slender Salicornia europaea - oil -
Goosefoot, Red Chenopodium rubrum - sprouted -
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - roasted -
Hedgenettle, Marsh Stachys palustris - details unknown
Herb Sophia Descurainia sophia - raw, sprouted
Hop, Common Humulus lupulus - details unknown -
Hornpoppy, Yellow Glaucium flavum - oil -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - sprouted -
Jewelweed, Ornamental Impatiens glandulifera - raw -
Juniper, Common Juniperus communis - roasted, beverage - rare plant -
Knotgrass, Common Polygonum aviculare - raw -
Knotweed, Curlytop Persicaria lapathifolia - raw -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - raw -
Lambsquarters Chenopodium album - sprouted -
Lettuce, Bitter Lactuca virosa - oil -
Licorice Root Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Mallow, High Malva sylvestris - raw -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Maple Acer spp. - details unknown
Maple, Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - details unknown
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - pods - cooked -
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - raw, flavouring -
Mustard, Charlock Sinapis arvensis - sprouted, flavouring -
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - pods - raw
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - flavouring -
Mustard, White Sinapis alba - sprouted, flavouring -
Nettle, Stinging Urtica dioica - sprouted -
Oak Quercus robur - leached and cooked -
Orache, Spear-leaved Atriplex hastata - cooked -
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - flavouring -
Pea, Beach Lathyrus japonicus - cooked -
Pennycress, Field Thlaspi arvense - flavouring, sprouted
Pepperweed, Broadleaved Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Pine Pinus spp - raw
Plantain, Narrowleaf Plantago lanceolata - cooked
Plum, Cherry Prunus cerasifera - raw, if not bitter -
Plum, European Prunus domestica - raw, if not bitter -
Pond-lily, Yellow Nuphar advena - raw
Poppy, Corn Papaver rhoeas - raw -
Quackgrass Elytrigia repens - details unknown
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - oil- young pods - raw
Rape Brassica napus - oil, flavouring -
Redshank Polygonum persicaria - raw -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - raw
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - details unknown -
Rush, Flowering Butomus umbellatus - details unknown
Ryegrass, Perennial Lolium perenne - flour-
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - sprouted - safety unknown
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - pods - pickled -
Sedge, Hanging Carex pendula - if free from ergot - cooked, flour
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Sorrel, Garden Rumex acetosa - raw -
Spear Saltbush Atriplex patula - cooked -
Spruce Picea spp. - raw
Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilotus officinalis - pods - raw, flavouring -
Swinecress, Greater Coronopus squamatus - sprouted
Tare, Tiny Vicia hirsuta - cooked
Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare - raw, sprouted -
Thistle, Creeping Cirsium arvense - sprouted -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - sprouted -
Thistle, (Blessed) Milk Silybum marianum - roasted, sprouted -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - cooked, sprouted
Trefoil, Bird's-foot Lotus corniculatus - sprouted -
Valerian, Garden Valeriana officinalis - details unknown -
Vetch, Bird Vicia cracca - cooked
Vetch, Bush Vicia sepium - cooked
Vetch, Garden Vicia sativa - pods - cooked -
Walnut, English Juglans regia - raw
Water-lily, White Nymphaea alba - cooked -
Watercress Nasturtium officinale - flavouring, sprouted -
Whitetop Lepidium draba (syn. Cardaria draba) - flavouring, sprouted -