Leaves are best picked young and tender in spring and early summer, but can often be picked all year round. Some will turn bitter when the plant starts flowering. They are high in minerals, vitamins, chlorophyll, as well as some protein which can be extracted from bulk material and processed into leaf curd.

To safeguard the plant's future availability, as well as its survival, it is best to take only a few leaves from each plant. Where the plant is plentiful and the leaves are small, and the stem tender, the whole plant can be consumed.

Unless otherwise stated, leaves can be eaten raw and added to salads. They can also be cooked in any way cultivated greens are cooked, though wild plants are often bitter or have a strong flavour, and are best mixed with other, more palatable foods or flavoured with condiments. To reduce bitterness in leaves try standing them in water overnight.

Some leaves have strong pungent or spicy flavours and are best used in small quantities for flavouring. Taste before picking any quantity.

Most leaves can be dried to store, however, drying may change the chemical composition of some plants. Check plant details for more information.

Some leaves can be stored alive for several days, even up to a week or two in a cool place, by standing them in water the way cut flowers are kept. Large leaves with stems can be stored like this individually (e.g. Ramson, Sea Beat etc.), or left on a common stalk if the leaves are small. Change the water daily and add a little sugar to help them keep fresh longer.

Leaf Curd - High Protein Food

Leaves contain in varying amounts protein, a macro nutrient difficult to obtain in the wild all year round. To get enough protein from eating leaves, one would have to chew one's way through large piles of them, and risk diarrhoea, or worse, in the process. Some plants, like trees and grasses, whose leaves are not palatable or digestible could still yield an acceptable and highly nutritious food, leaf curd, by means of a relatively simple process. Separating out the protein also leaves behind most (but not all!) nitrates, oxalic acid, tannin, saponins and other plant toxins, but also many other nutrients. This process is used to obtain mainly a high-protein food.

Leaf curd made from one laundry basket of nettles

To make leaf curd, leaves need to be juiced first (see notes on juicing on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page). The highest juice yield comes from fresh leaves, picked in the morning and processed immediately. The juice is heated rapidly to boiling point. The protein coagulates (familiar from boiling eggs) and floats to the surface as small grains, which are strained from the liquid and can either be eaten in this moist grainy state if safe laves are used, or washed, pressed into tofu-like curds and dried for storage, and is later reconstituted.

An alternative method is to boil some water and dribble the juice into the boiling water where it coagulates immediately.

Large quantities of plant matter are needed to obtain a portion of leaf curd. About a laundry basket of Stinging Nettles (high protein content) will yield about a cup of curd, before pressing, as seen in the above photo.

Avoid leaves from plants known to be poisonous, e.g. leaves from any member of the genus Prunus, as well as old discoloured leaves. Leaves which yield a mucilaginous juice (e.g. Rosebay Willowherb and Mallows) or producing a very fine curdled grain which is difficult to separate out, are not suitable.

The protein from the juice may also curdle in an acidic liquid. The juice of leaves which are high in acid, like Japanese Knotweed or Sorrel which contain oxalic acid, may not need heating to form grains (not tested).

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - raw -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - raw -
Archangel, Yellow Lamiastrum galeobdolon - cooked
Arrowhead Sagittaria sagittifolia - raw
Ash Fraxinus excelsior - tea -
Aster, Sea Aster tripolium - cooked
Avens, Water Geum rivale - flavouring, tea
Avens, Wood Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Barberry Berberis vulgaris - raw -
Basil, Wild Clinopodium vulgare - raw, flavouring
Bedstraw, Hedge Galium mollugo - raw
Bedstraw, Lady's Galium verum - raw
Beech Fagus sylvatica - raw -
Beet, Sea Beta vulgaris maritima - raw
Bellflower, Creeping Campanula rapunculoides - raw
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Bellflower, Rampion Campanula rapunculus - raw
Betony Stachys officinalis - tea
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus - tea
Bilberry, Northern Vaccinium uliginosum - tea -
Bindweed, Hedge Calystegia sepium - cooked -
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - raw
Bistort Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - raw
Borage Borago officinalis - raw -
Bramble Rubus fruticosus - raw, young buds -
Brooklime Veronica beccabunga - raw
Broom Cytisus scoparius - raw -
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum - raw -
Bugle Ajuga reptans - raw -
Bugloss, Viper's Echium vulgare - raw -
Bulrush Typha latifolia - raw
Bur Marigold, Trifid Bidens tripartita - young - cooked
Burdock, Great Arctium lappa - raw -
Burnet, Salad Sanguisorba minor - raw
Burnet, Great Sanguisorba officinalis - raw
Buttercup, Bulbous Ranunculus bulbosus - cooked -
Buttercup, Celery-leaved Ranunculus sceleratus - cooked -
Buttercup, Creeping Ranunculus repens - cooked -
Buttercup, Meadow Ranunculus acris - cooked -
Cabbage, Wild Brassica oleracea - raw
Calamint, Common Calamintha ascendens - flavouring
Campion, Bladder Silene vulgaris - raw -
Catsear, Common Hypochoeris radicata - raw
Celandine, Greater Chelidonium majus - leached, cooked
Celandine, Lesser Ranunculus ficaria - before flowering, raw -
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - raw -
Chamomile, Stinking Anthemis cotula - flavouring -
Charlock Sinapis arvensis - raw -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - raw -
Chicory Cichorium intybus - raw -
Chives Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Cicely, Sweet Myrrhis odorata - raw -
Cinquefoil, Creeping Potentilla reptans - raw
Clary, Wild Salvia horminoides raw - rare plant
Cleavers Galium aparine - juiced, cooked -
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - raw -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - young - raw -
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - young - raw -
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - raw -
Cornsalad Valerianella locusta - raw
Couchgrass Elytrigia repens - leaf curd, juiced
Cowberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea - tea -
Cowslip Primula veris - raw -
Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus - tea
Cranesbill, Cut-leaved Geranium dissectum - raw
Cress, Hoary Lepidium draba - flavouring -
Cress, Swine Coronopus squamatus - cooked
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - raw
Currant, Black Ribes nigrum - cooked
Daisy Bellis perennis - raw
Daisy, Ox-eye Chrysanthemum leucanthemum - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Deadnettle, Henbit Lamium amplexicaule - raw
Deadnettle, Red Lamium purpureum - raw
Deadnettle, White Lamium album - raw
Dittander Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Dock, Curled Rumex crispus - raw -
Dock, Patience Rumex patientia - details unknown
Dropwort Filipendula vulgaris - raw
Duckweed Lemna minor - details unknown
Fat Hen Chenopodium album - cooked -
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Fenugreek Trigonella ornithopodioides - raw
Fig, Hottentot Carpobrotus edulis - raw
Flixweed Descurainia sophia - cooked
Fumitory Fumaria officinalis - curdling agent
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Goldenrod Solidago virgaurea - tea - safety unknown
Good King Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus - cooked -
Gooseberry Ribes uva-crispa - young - raw -
Goosefoot, Red Chenopodium rubrum - cooked -
Grass - leaf curd, juiced -
Ground Elder Aegopodium podagraria - raw -
Ground Ivy Glechoma hederacea - raw -
Groundsel Senecio vulgaris - raw -
Harebell Campanula rotundifolia - raw
Hawkbit, Rough Leontodon hispidus - raw
Hawk's Beard Crepsis tectorum - young - cooked
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - young - raw -
Herb Bennet Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - raw
Hop Humulus lupulus - raw -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - raw -
Juniper Juniperus communis - tea - rare plant -
Knotgrass Polygonum aviculare - raw -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - cooked -
Lady's Mantle Alchemilla vulgaris - raw
Largeflower Wild Onion Allium macropetalum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Leek, Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Lettuce, Greater (Prickly) Lactuca virosa - raw -
Lettuce, Wall Mycelis muralis - raw
Lime, Common Tilia vulgaris - raw -
Loosestrife, Purple Lythrum salicaria - cooked
Loosestrife, Yellow Lysimachia vulgaris - young - details and safety unknown
Lords and Ladies Arum maculatum - cooked -
Lovage, Scots Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Lungwort Pulmonaria offinialis - raw
Maidenhair Fern Adiantum capillis-veneris - cooked -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Mallow, Common Malva sylvestris - raw -
Mallow, Marsh Althaea officinalis - raw
Maple Acer spp. - details unknown
Marigold, Corn Chrysanthemum segetum - cooked -
Marigold, Marsh Caltha palustris - young - cooked -
Marjoram, Wild Origanum vulgare - flavouring - safety unknown
Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria - cooked, tea -
Medick, Black Medicago lupulina - cooked -
Melilot Melilotus officinalis - raw, flavouring -
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - cooked -
Mignonette, Wild Reseda lutea - raw
Milkwort, Common Polygala vulgaris - tea -
Mint, Apple Mentha rotundifolia - flavouring -
Mint, Corn Mentha arvensis - flavouring -
Mint, Corsican Mentha requienii - flavouring -
Mint, Eau-de-Cologne Mentha citrata - flavouring -
Mint, Horse Mentha longifolia - flavouring -
Mint, Water Mentha aquatica - flavouring -
Monkey Flower Mimulus guttatus - raw
Moss, Iceland Cetraria islandica - leach for jelly, cooked - safety unknown
Mouse-ear, Common Cerastium fontanum - raw
Mouse-ear, Sticky Cerastium glomeratum - details unknown
Mugwort Artemisia vulgaris - raw -
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - raw -
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - raw
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - raw -
Mustard, White Sinapis alba - raw -
Myrtle, Bog Myrica gale - flavouring -
Navelwort Umbilicus rupestris - raw
Nettle, Stinging Urtica dioica - cooked, leaf curd, juiced -
Nipplewort Lapsana communis - raw
Orache, Common Atriplex patula - raw -
Orache, Spear-leaved Atriplex hastata - cooked -
Orpine Hylotelephium telephium - raw -
Oxtongue, Bristly Picris echioides - raw
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - raw
Parsley Piert Aphanes arvensis - raw
Parsley, Cow Anthriscus sylvestris - raw -
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - cooked -
Pea, Sea Lathyrus japonicus - raw -
Pennycress, Field Thlaspi arvense - raw
Pennyroyal Mentha pulegium - flavouring -
Peppermint Mentha piperita - flavouring -
Persicaria, Pale Persicaria lapathifolia - raw -
Pimpernel, Scarlet Anagallis arvensis - raw -
Pine Pinus spp - tea
Plantain, Buck's Horn Plantago coronopus - raw - safety unknown
Plantain, Ribwort Plantago lanceolata - raw
Poppy, Common Papaver rhoeas - raw (before flowering) -
Primrose Primula vulgaris - raw
Purslane, Sea Atriplex portulacoides - raw
Purslane, Water Lythrum portula - raw
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Ramson Allium ursinum - raw -
Rape Brassica napus - raw -
Raspberry Rubus idaeus - tea -
Redshank Polygonum persicaria - raw -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - partly unfolded - cooked
Rhubarb, Monk's Rumex alpinus - details unknown -
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - raw
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - tea -
Ryegrass, Perennial Lolium perenne - leaf curd, juiced -
Sage, Wood Teucrium scorodonia - flavouring
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - raw -
Saxifrage, Opposite-leaved Golden Chrysosplenium oppositifolium - raw
Scurvy-grass, Common Cochlearia officinalis - raw - high in Vitamin C
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - raw
Self-heal Prunella vulgaris - raw
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Silverweed Argentina anserina - raw
Sorrel, Common Rumex acetosa - raw -
Sow-thistle, Perennial Sonchus arvensis - raw -
Sow-thistle, Prickly Sonchus asper - raw -
Sow-thistle, Smooth Sonchus oleraceus - raw -
Spearmint Mentha spicata - flavouring -
Speedwell, Germander Veronica chamaedrys - tea - safety unknown
Spignel Meum athamanticum - cooked, flavouring -
Spring Beauty Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Spruce Picea spp. - raw
Spurrey, Corn Apergula arvensis - details unknown -
Stonecrop, Biting Sedum acre - raw -
Stonecrop, Reflexed Sedum reflexum - raw -
Stork's-bill, Common Erodium cicutarium - raw
Strawberry, Wild Fragaria vesca - raw
Sweet Flag Acorus calamus - young - raw -
Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - details unknown
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare - flavouring -
Tare, Hairy Vicia hirsuta - cooked
Thistle, Cabbage Cirsium oleraceum - cooked -
Thistle, Creeping Cirsium arvense - raw -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - raw -
Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum - raw -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - raw
Thistle, Spear Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Thrift Armeria maritima - cooked - safety unknown
Thyme, Wild Thymus polytrichus - flavouring - safety unknown
Toadflax, Ivy-leaved Cymbalaria muralis - raw -
Turnip, Wild Brassica rapa - raw
Valerian, Common Valeriana officinalis - flavouring -
Valerian, Red Centranthus ruber - raw
Vetch, Common Vicia sativa - cooked -
Vetch, Tufted Vicia cracca - cooked
Violet, Common Dog Viola riviniana - raw
Violet, Sweet Viola odorata - raw
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -
Watercress Nasturtium officinale - raw -
Whitlow-grass, Wall Draba muralis - raw - high in Vitamin C
Willowherb, Great Epilobium hirsutum raw - details unknown -
Willowherb, Rosebay Chamerion angustifolium - raw
Wintercress Barbarea vulgaris - raw -
Wintergreen Pyrola minor - raw
Woodruff, Sweet Galium odoratum - raw, flavouring -
Wood-sorrel Oxalis acetosella - raw -
Yarrow Achillea millefolium - raw -

Bark

The inner bark of some trees can be eaten to obtain carbohydrates. It is best eaten cooked and ground up. Remove narrow vertical strips of the outer bark near the base of the tree and strip off the inner bark with a knife. This is easiest in the spring when the sap is rising when it is also most palatable with the raised sugar content. Avoid ring-barking the tree as this will kill it. The bark of some trees, including some common ones (e.g. trees and shrubs of the Prunus genus), is toxic.

This is famine food only.

Suitable trees:
Aspen, Birch, Maples, Pine, Poplar, Spruce, Willow (caution: contains salicylic acid, avoid if sensitive to Aspirin)

Herb stems

Where the leaves of a plant are edible and the stem is soft, it may be eaten together with the leaves. The stems of some plants are soft when young, but turn woody later, and can only be consumed as shoots, or when their outer skin is removed.

Remove tough fibrous parts, and any thorns or prickles, barbs or tough hairs, as they may not soften when cooked.

See also "Sap" below.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - raw -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - raw -
Archangel, Yellow Lamiastrum galeobdolon - shoot - cooked
Arrowhead Sagittaria sagittifolia - shoot - cooked
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis - shoot - raw -
Aster, Sea Aster tripolium - cooked
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - shoot - raw
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - inner bark - flour
Bramble Rubus fruticosus - raw, young, peeled -
Broom, Butcher's Ruscus aculeatus - shoot, cooked -
Bryony, Black Tamus communis - shoot, cooked -
Bulrush Typha latifolia - shoot - raw
Bur-reed, Branched Sparganium erectum - base - cooked
Burdock, Great Arctium lappa - young - raw -
Burnet , Salad Sanguisorba minor - young - raw
Burnet, Great Sanguisorba officinalis - young - raw
Campion, Bladder Silene vulgaris - shoot - raw -
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile - shoot - flavouring, tea -
Charlock Sinapis arvensis - cooked -
Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chaerophyllum bulbosum - shoot - raw -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - raw -
Clubrush, Common Scirpus lacustris - shoot - raw
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - shoot - raw
Dock, Curled Rumex crispus - raw -
Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis - shoot - raw -
Evening Primrose, Large-flowered Oenothera glazioviana - shoot - raw
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Flixweed Descurainia sophia - shoot - cooked
Fumitory Fumaria officinalis - curdling agent
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Goatsbeard Tragopogon pratensis - shoot - raw
Gorse Ulex europaeus - shoot tips - tea -
Heather Calluna vulgaris - shoots - tea
Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium - shoot - raw -
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - inner - raw
Hop Humulus lupulus - shoot - cooked -
Horsetail, Field Equisetum arvense - fertile - cooked -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - shoot - cooked -
Lovage, Scots Ligusticum scoticum - shoot - raw, flavouring -
Marigold, Corn Chrysanthemum segetum - shoots - cooked -
Mayweed, Scented Matricaria recutita - shoot - safety unknown
Melilot Melilotus officinalis - shoot - cooked -
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - shoot - cooked -
Mouse-ear, Common Cerastium fontanum young - cooked
Mouse-ear, Sticky Cerastium glomeratum - shoot - details unknown
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - raw -
Raspberry Rubus idaeus - young - cooked -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - shoot - raw
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - shoot - raw - safety unknown
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - shoot - raw -
Samphire, Marsh Salicornia europaea - shoot - cooked -
Scabious, Devilsbit Succisa pratensis - shoots - raw
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - shoots - raw
Silverweed Argentina anserina - young shoots - raw
Sow-thistle, Perennial Sonchus arvensis - shoots - cooked -
Sow-thistle, Prickly Sonchus asper - raw -
Sow-thistle, Smooth Sonchus oleraceus - peeled - cooked -
Spruce Picea spp. - inner bark - cooked
Star of Bethlehem, Spiked Ornithogalum pyrenaicum - shoots - cooked -
Sweet Flag Acorus calamus - shoot - raw -
Tare, Hairy Vicia hirsuta - shoot - cooked
Thistle, Creeping Cirsium arvense - peeled - cooked -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - raw -
Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum - peeled - raw -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - shoot - raw
Thistle, Spear Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Toadflax Linaria vulgaris - shoot - cooked -
Traveller's Joy Clematis vitalba - shoot - cooked -
Vetch, Common Vicia sativa - shoots - cooked -
Vetch, Tufted Vicia cracca - shoots - cooked
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -
Willowherb, Rosebay Chamerion angustifolium - young shoots - raw, later - cooked
Woundwort, Marsh Stachys palustris - shoots - cooked

Trees

Some trees yield a sugar-rich sap which can be drunk raw, fermented into alcoholic beverages or gently boiled down to syrup (10 litres or more sap makes approx. 1 litre syrup).

The most copious flow is approximately during the first half of March, with up to 2 litres per day. Yield varies with species, as does the sugar content.

Fresh sap can spoil within a day or two (becomes cloudy and sour). Store syrup in an airtight container and place in a cool place. This syrup can become mouldy. To store for extended periods, the syrup should be sterilised. Adding 4-6 cloves and a little cinnamon may help to preserve it longer (untested by author).

Yield is best when nights are frosty, and days are warm and sunny.

Drilling Method

Drill a hole in the lower trunk, approximately 30mm deep, angled slightly upwards and the diameter of the tube used (10-20mm) giving a tight fit to prevent leakage. Insert one end of some plastic tube partway into the hole and the other end into a container, covering the opening with cloth to exclude leaves, insects etc., but allowing air to be expelled as the container fills up.

To protect the tree from damage, insert a tight-fitting wooden plug after tapping is complete, and seal any leaks with wax or proprietary sealing compound. Do not tap for more than two days, and tap the same tree every other year maximum. Tap only mature trees.

Twig Method

The easy way to tap a tree is by simply cutting, or even breaking off the end of some thin branches. Put the ends of the branches into the neck of a bottle, tie the bottle to the branches and gently weigh them down to make sure the bottle hangs in as upright a position as possible. Branches want to point upwards. You can tie a small log or other weight to the branches, tie them to vegetation below or lean a long stick of the right weight onto the branches to make them bend down.

Easier still, is to use a plastic bag instead of a bottle, but make sure first that the bag does not leak, or that there are no nearby branches or sharp objects which can puncture the bag, even in a breeze. Secure it with string or an elastic band.

There is no need for any sealing after the tapping. The small twigs will heal over by themselves. However, bear in mind that they will continue to drip for several days during the height of the short flow season. Towards the end of the flow season they will stop within a day or less.

This method is suitable for any tree where the branches are easy to reach, and can be done on younger trees.

For more in-depth information on tree sap harvesting and processing go to the web article via this pop-up browser and also follow the links on the page and comments below the post (requires internet connection).

Other Plants

All plants will contain some sap in their tissue which can be extracted as juice through various juicing methods, provided the plant is non-toxic. One plant, in particular, will also yield a sugar-rich sap from its stem - the Common Reed, Phragmitis australis.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Birch Betula spp. - raw
Lime, Common* Tilia vulgaris - raw -
Maple* Acer spp. - raw, syrup
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - raw
Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - raw, syrup
Walnut* Juglans regia - raw, syrup

* high in sugar

Other Suitable trees:
Larch spp.

Includes other underground parts: bulbs, tubers, rhizomes etc.

Roots are the energy storehouse of plants and often store extra reserves during dormancy (perennial herbs). They are often rich in carbohydrates, a macro nutrient difficult to find throughout the year in nature in quantities needed for sustained energy. Unlike seeds, they usually evade being eaten by animals.

Although many roots are edible, and those of perennial plants are available all year round, in practice there are several problems with collecting them. It is difficult to identify dormant roots without the rest of the plant, unless very distinct. They are often very tough and small, especially when the energy is in the growing plant. It is illegal to dig up plants without the permission of the land owner, and once the root is dug up, the plant is effectively destroyed. However, their rich nutrient content sometimes justifies collection.

Roots should be well scrubbed, especially when they are eaten raw. They are digested most easily cooked. Tough, or very bitter skin should be removed. To reduce cooking time cut into small pieces. Some roots contain toxic substances, and where indicated, should be soaked and cooked in several changes of water, ideally after pulping the root and containing the pulp in a muslin bag.

The most efficient way to pulp small roots for juicing is crushing. Larger roots can also be juiced by crushing or by grating teeth as in centrifugal type juicers, or the 'Champion' juicer, which also has tiny teeth, but arranged along a cylinder.

It is also possible to make a fizzy lactic soda drink - a kind of root beer or variation on ginger ale, with roots. Roots carry anaerobic lactic bacteria which are beneficial to health. For more information and a link to step-by-step instructions read the Lactofermentation section on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page.

Roots are best collected

The roots of some plants are able to regenerate from small fragments (e.g. Japanese Knotweed). When digging for roots of invasive perennials, remove all fragments and destroy by safe means, such as burning or maceration in water until they are liquefied.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Roots shown in colour indicate those which are known to be more than just thread-size. However, others may be worth investigating.

Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - cooked -
Angelica Angelica archangelica - cooked -
Arrowhead Sagittaria sagittifolia - avoid, rare
Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Avens, Water Geum rivale - flavouring, tea
Avens, Wood Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Beet, Sea Beta vulgaris maritima - raw -
Bellflower, CreepingbCampanula rapunculoides - raw
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Bellflower, Rampion Campanula rapunculus - raw
Betony Stachys officinalis - raw
Bindweed, Hedge Calystegia sepium - cooked, starch -
Bistort Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata - cooked -
Bracken Pteridium aquilium - cooked -
Bramble Rubus fruticosus - cooked -
Bulrush Typha latifolia - raw
Bur-reed, Branched Sparganium erectum - cooked
Burdock, Great Arctium lappa - raw -
Buttercup, Bulbous Ranunculus bulbosus - cooked -
Buttercup, Creeping Ranunculus repens - cooked -
Carrot, Wild Daucus carota - cooked -
Celandine, Lesser Ranunculus ficaria - after plant has withered, cooked -
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - cooked -
Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chaerophyllum bulbosum - raw -
Chicory Cichorium intybus - cooked, roasted -
Chives Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Cicely, Sweet Myrrhis odorata - raw -
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - cooked -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - cooked -
Clubrush Scirpus maritimus - flour
Clubrush, Common Scirpus lacustris - raw
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - raw -
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - cooked, flavouring -
Couchgrass Elytrigia repens - cooked
Cranesbill, Cut-leaved Geranium dissectum - cooked
Cress, Swine Coronopus squamatus - cooked
Daisy, Ox-eye Chrysanthemum leucanthemum - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Dittander Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Dropwort Filipendula vulgaris - raw
Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis - cooked -
Evening Primrose, Large-flowered Oenothera glazioviana - cooked
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare - cooked -
Figwort, Common Scrophularia nodosa - cooked
Galingale Cyperus longus - flavouring - rare plant
Gipsywort Lycopus europaeus - raw
Goatsbeard Tragopogon pratensis - raw
Hawkbit, Rough Leontodon hispidus - roasted, beverage
Herb Bennet Geum urbanum - flavouring, tea
Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium - cooked -
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - starch
Hop Humulus lupulus - details unknown -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - flavouring -
Horsetail, Field Equisetum arvense - cooked -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - cooked -
Lady's Mantle Alchemilla vulgaris - cooked
Largeflower Wild Onion Allium macropetalum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Leek, Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Liquorice, Wild Astragalus glycyphyllus - raw, condensed juice
Loosestrife, Purple Lythrum salicaria - cooked
Lords and Ladies Arum maculatum - leached and cooked -
Lovage, Scots Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Mallow, Marsh Althaea officinalis - raw
Marigold, Marsh Caltha palustris - cooked -
Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria - cooked -
Melilot Melilotus officinalis - details unknown -
Orchid, Early Purple Orchis mascula - cooked - rare plant
Orchid, Pyramidal Anacamptis pyramidalis - cooked - safety unknown
Orpine Hylotelephium telephium - cooked -
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - details unknown
Parsley, Cow Anthriscus sylvestris - cooked -
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - raw -
Pignut Conopodium majus - raw -
Plantain, Common Water Alisma plantago-aquatica - leached and cooked -
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Ramson Allium ursinum - bulb - raw -
Raspberry Rubus idaeus - cooked -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - cooked
Rest-harrow Ononis repens - raw
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - details unknown
Rush, Flowering Butomus umbellatus - cooked
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - raw - safety unknown
Sea Holly Eryngium maritimum - raw - rare plant -
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - raw
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Silverweed Argentina anserina - raw, starch
Sorrel, Common Rumex acetosa - cooked -
Sow-thistle, Perennial Sonchus arvensis - cooked, roasted -
Sow-thistle, Prickly Sonchus asper - cooked -
Sow-thistle, Smooth Sonchus oleraceus - cooked -
Spatterdock, Common Nuphar advena - raw
Spignel Meum athamanticum - cooked, flavouring -
Spring Beauty Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Star of Bethlehem Ornithogalum umbellatum - bulb - raw -
Strawberry, Wild Fragaria vesca - cooked
Sweet Flag Acorus calamus - peeled - raw -
Thistle, Cabbage Cirsium oleraceum - cooked -
Thistle, Creeping Cirsium arvense - raw -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - young - cooked -
Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum - raw -
Thistle, Spear Cirsium vulgare - cooked -
Thrift Armeria maritima - details unknown - safety unknown
Tormentil Potentilla erecta - leached and cooked -
Turnip, Wild Brassica rapa - raw
Valerian, Red Centranthus ruber - cooked
Vetch, Bitter Lathyrus montanus - cooked -
Water-lily, White Nymphaea alba - cooked -
Water-lily, Yellow Nuphar lutea - cooked -
Willowherb, Rosebay Chamerion angustifolium - raw
Woundwort, Marsh Stachys palustris - raw

Flowers, unless very plentiful, are best left for insects who depend on them for survival, and to allow the plant to seed or develop fruit. Some flowers may be the sole food of important or even rare insects, whilst they are mostly of negligible value to humans, and many plants, especially annuals, rely on flowers to set seed to ensure the genetic survival.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria - tea
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum - buds - raw -
Bellflower, Giant Campanula latifolia - raw
Betony Stachys officinalis - tea
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - raw
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - raw
Blackthorn Prunus spinosa - raw -
Borage Borago officinalis - raw -
Bulrush Typha latifolia - immature, pollen - raw
Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile - flavouring, tea -
Charlock Sinapis arvensis - cooked -
Chicory Cichorium intybus - raw -
Chives Allium schoenoprasum - raw -
Clary, Wild Salvia horminoides raw - rare plant
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - raw -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - raw -
Clubrush, Common Scirpus lacustris - pollen - flour
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara - flavouring -
Cornsalad Valerianella locusta - raw
Cowslip Primula veris - raw -
Creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia - tea
Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis - bud - raw
Daisy Bellis perennis - raw
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Deadnettle, White Lamium album - raw
Elder Sambucus nigra - raw -
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare - raw -
Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium - flavouring
Gallant Soldier Galinsoga parviflora - raw -
Goatsbeard Tragopogon pratensis - raw
Gorse Ulex europaeus - pickled -
Grape, Oregon Mahonia aquifolium - raw
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - tea -
Hollyhock Alcea rosea - raw
Hop Humulus lupulus - female - details unknown -
Knapweed, Common Centaurea nigra - petals - raw
Largeflower Wild Onion Allium macropetalum - raw -
Leek, Sand Allium scorodoprasum - raw -
Leek, Three-cornered Allium triquetrum - raw -
Leek, Wild Allium ampeloprasum - raw -
Lime, Common Tilia vulgaris - flavouring, tea -
Lovage, Scots Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Mallow, Common Malva sylvestris - raw -
Mayweed, Pineapple Matricaria discoidea - raw, tea -
Mayweed, Scented Matricaria recutita - tea
Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria - flavouring, tea -
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - buds - cooked -
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - raw
Onion, Wild Allium dregeanum - raw -
Onion, Wild Allium mutabile - raw -
Oyster Plant Mertensia maritima - raw
Primrose Primula vulgaris - raw
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - raw
Ramson Allium ursinum - raw -
Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus - raw
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - raw -
Sage, Wood Teucrium scorodonia - flavouring
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - raw - safety unknown
Sea Kale Crambe maritima - bud - cooked
Sorrel, Common Rumex acetosa - cooked -
Spring Beauty Claytonia perfoliata - raw
Spruce Picea spp. - male:raw, female:cooked
St. John's Wort, Perforate Hypericum perforatum - tea -
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare - flavouring -
Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum - bud - cooked -
Thistle, Spear Cirsium vulgare - bud - cooked -
Vetch, Kidney Anthyllis vulneraria - tea - safety unknown
Violet, Common Dog Viola riviniana - raw
Violet, Sweet Viola odorata - raw
Willowherb, Rosebay Chamerion angustifolium - buds - raw
Wintercress Barbarea vulgaris - buds - cooked -
Wood-sorrel Oxalis acetosella - raw -

Most fruit wants to be eaten in order to disperse the seed. The only ethical question is, who should eat it? Ownership and fair use would answer the question about humans, however, a lot of wildlife relies on fruit for survival, and it is therefor unfair to strip a plant, even if there is no human competition. Foxes, for example, will eat blackberries almost as a staple during fruiting periods, I see the seed-speckled purple evidence every late summer!

Fruit is high in vitamins and minerals, and some (especially the blue-black types) are high in antioxidant flavenoids, as well as sugar for energy.

Very palatable fruit may be gathered in the wild, often escapees from gardens, and may be found well removed from human habitation where birds take the seed into the depth of the countryside, or where a cottage may have stood many years ago.

Fruit from wild plants can be preserved in the same way as domesticated varieties. Berries may be dried whole like raisins whilst larger fruit should be thinly sliced before placing in a dehydrator, solar or otherwise. Sliced fruit may also be dried by stringing on thin twine and hung in a warm, well ventilated place. This may take up to ten days, and the fruit should be protected from moisture and insects. Fruit picked for jellies should be only just ripe.

Making Fruit Leather from Haws

This method was shown on TV by British bushcraft expert Ray Mears. Place raw haws in a large bowl and crush between hands. The pulp should be semi-liquid. If it is too dry add a few drops of water. Skim skins and stones with hands and squeeze out remaining juicy pulp. After a few minutes it will start to firm up into a jelly. Haws are high in pectin, which helps this firming up process. When firm enough cut thin slices and dry these in the sun, a well ventilated warm place or in a dehydrator.

However, Ray Mears has strong hands, and it looked easy when he did it, but, like me, you may find it not quite so easy. An untried method, which probably works well, and allows the nutritious skins to be included, is to use a colander or other hole (rather than wire) sieve with holes only just smaller than the seeds. Press the haws through holes and proceed as above. A small amount of cider vinegar or lemon juice mixed in may prevent oxidation where the fruit pulp turns dark on exposure to air.

This process may also work with other pulpy fruit (untried).

Making Raw Syrup

The juice of fruit can be drawn from it by sugar which is hydrophilic. This process preserves more of the nutrients. It works best with berries, especially soft berries. Rose hips should be fully ripe. It also makes very tart berries more palatable.

Prick the fruit a few times with a needle or other clean, pointed object. Layer the fruit in a jar with a generous sprinkling of sugar between each layer. A tall, narrow jar works better than a wide shallow one. It reduces the surface area where mould can form. As the juice is drawn it dissolves the sugar and forms a syrup which surrounds the fruit. A covering of syrup helps to prevent mould forming on the surface. If it does form, remove and add concentrated sugar water to cover the fruit.

Leave in a cool place until the liquid surrounding the fruit is a rich colour, having absorbed much of the juice. The syrup can be used to flavour drinks or desserts, or used as a remedy or tonic where appropriate. A healthy fizzy lactic drink can be made with other additions. See the Lactofermentation section on the Storage, Preparation and Poop page. The fruit may also be eaten, though check the details of individual plants for any exceptions where seeds may be poisonous or irritant.

As a rough guide for making sugar water for syrup use sugar and water in equal weights.

Always use clean containers and tools, although sterilisation is not necessary. Cover jar to exclude insects and dust.

Honey is not suitable as a sugar substitute if the syrup is used to make a lactic drink, as honey is slightly antiseptic and prevents the lactic bacilli from doing their job.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Apple, Crab Malus sylvestris - raw -
Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Barberry Berberis vulgaris - raw -
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus - raw
Bilberry, Northern Vaccinium uliginosum - raw -
Blackthorn Prunus spinosa - raw, jelly, flavouring, syrup -
Bramble Rubus fruticosus - raw -
Buckthorn, Sea Hippophae rhamnoides - raw - high in Vitamin C
Bullace Prunus domestica ssp insititia - raw -
Cherry, Bird Prunus padus - raw -
Cherry, Cornelian Cornus mas - raw
Cherry, Dwarf Prunus cerasus - raw -
Cherry, Wild Prunus avium - raw -
Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus - raw
Cornel, Dwarf Cornus suecica - raw
Cowberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea - raw -
Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus - raw
Crowberry Empetrum nigrum - raw -
Currant, Black Ribes nigrum - raw
Currant, Red Ribes rubrum - raw -
Dewberry Rubus caesius - raw -
Dogwood Cornus sanguinea - cooked -
Elder Sambucus nigra - raw -
Fig, Hottentot Carpobrotus edulis - raw
French Hales Sorbus latifolia - when nearly rotten - raw -
Gooseberry Ribes uva-crispa - raw -
Grape, Oregon Mahonia aquifolium - raw
Guelder Rose Viburnum opulus - raw -
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - raw -
Juneberry Amelanchier lamarckii (syn. A. intermedia) - raw - safety unknown
Juniper Juniperus communis - flavouring, tea - rare plant -
Medlar Mespilus germanica - raw (best bletted - when nearly rotten) -
Mulberry Morus ssp - raw
Myrtle, Bog Myrica gale - flavouring -
Pear Pyrus communis - when nearly rotten - cooked
Plum, Cherry Prunus cerasifera - raw -
Plum, Wild Prunus domestica - raw -
Raspberry Rubus idaeus - raw -
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - raw -
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia - cooked, jelly -
Service Tree, Wild Sorbus torminalis - raw (bletted - nearly rotten) -
Snowberry Symphoricarpos albus - raw -
Strawberry Tree Arbutus unedo - raw
Strawberry, Wild Fragaria vesca - raw
Whitebeam Sorbus aria - raw (when nearly rotten) -
Wintergreen Pyrola minor - details unknown

Seeds, including nuts, are a good source of carbohydrates (including fat) and protein, macro nutrients which are difficult to find in plant sources. Seeds from herbs are sometimes aromatic and best used as spices. Taste before harvesting any quantity.

Keep in a dry place, remove any outer casing, especially green fleshy parts which may rot. Some green outer parts, like the leafy cap of the hazel nut, may also draw moisture from the seed as it transpires, leaving a shrivelled nut inside.

Some trees and shrubs only produce nuts every few years and yield can vary when they do crop. It is best to gather these nuts only in good years unless in real need, as wildlife may depend on the crop for survival.

Wild grass seeds are too small to bother with for flour. Most grains have an outer husk which needs to be removed.

Very small seeds just pass through the body and cannot be digested unless well chewed or mechanically cracked with a seed/grain mill or a mortar and pestle, which also releases more flavour.

Sprouting

Sprouted seeds are more nutritious, and often easier to digest than the dormant seed. In practice, however, not all seeds of wild plants are suitable or safe to sprout. Many wild plant seeds need to undergo changes in temperature, have specific light requirements and long germination periods which makes sprouting a complicated and drawn out process. Only those seeds which germinate within less than a week and without complex requirements are suitable.

If the seed, stem and leaves are considered safe to eat, then the sprouted seed is safe as well.

Seeds of pulses, which are often not safe to eat raw, may be safe after sprouting.

Important! Read the full description of the plant in the plant list.

Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria - cooked
Angelica Angelica archangelica - flavouring -
Arum, Bog Calla palustris - cooked -
Ash Fraxinus excelsior - pickled, oil -
Balsam, Himalayan Impatiens glandulifera - raw -
Barley, Mouse Hordeum murinum - flour
Bedstraw, Lady's Galium verum - details unknown
Beech Fagus sylvatica - raw, oil -
Bindweed, Black Fallopia convulvulus - flour -
Birch, Downy Betula pubescens - flour
Bistort Polygonum bistorta - raw -
Bittercress, Hairy Cardamine hirsuta - sprouted, though small and fiddly
Broom Cytisus scoparius - roasted -
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum - raw, sprouted -
Bulrush Typha latifolia - raw, flour
Celery, Wild Apium graveolens - flavouring -
Charlock Sinapis arvensis - sprouted, flavouring -
Cherry, Bird Prunus padus - raw, if not bitter -
Cherry, Cornelian Cornus mas - roasted
Cherry, Dwarf Prunus cerasus - raw, if not bitter -
Cherry, Wild Prunus avium - raw, if not bitter -
Chestnut, Sweet Castanea sativa - cooked
Chestnut, Horse Aesculus hippocastanum - fully ripe, leached and cooked -
Chickweed, Common Stellaria media - cooked -
Cleavers Galium aparine - roasted, sprouted -
Clover, Red Trifolium pratense - sprouted -
Clover, White Trifolium repens - flour -
Clubrush Scirpus maritimus - flour
Clubrush, Common Scirpus lacustris - flour
Coriander Coriandrum sativum - cooked, flavouring -
Couchgrass Elytrigia repens - details unknown
Cress, Hoary Lepidium draba (syn. Cardaria draba) - flavouring, sprouted -
Cress, Swine Coronopus squamatus - sprouted
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale - raw -
Dittander Lepidium latifolium - raw, flavouring
Dock, Curled Rumex crispus - raw -
Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis - cooked, oil -
Evening Primrose, Large-flowered Oenothera glazioviana - raw
Fat Hen Chenopodium album - sprouted -
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare - flavouring, sprouted -
Flag, Yellow Iris pseudacorus - cooked -
Flixweed Descurainia sophia - raw, sprouted
Goosefoot, Red Chenopodium rubrum - sprouted -
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna - roasted -
Hazel Corylus avellana - raw
Hop Humulus lupulus - details unknown -
Horned-poppy, Yellow Glaucium flavum - oil -
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana - sprouted -
Juniper Juniperus communis - roasted, beverage - rare plant -
Knotgrass Polygonum aviculare - raw -
Knotweed, Japanese Fallopia japonica - raw -
Lettuce, Greater (Prickly) Lactuca virosa - oil -
Lovage, Scots Ligusticum scoticum - raw, flavouring -
Mallow, Musk Malva moschata - raw -
Mallow, Common Malva sylvestris - raw -
Maple Acer spp. - details unknown
Medick, Black Medicago lupulina - sprouted -
Melilot Melilotus officinalis - pods - raw, flavouring -
Melilot, Tall Melilotus altissimus - pods - cooked -
Mustard, Hedge Sisymbrium officinale - flavouring -
Mustard, Black Brassica nigra - raw, flavouring -
Mustard, Garlic Alliaria petiolata - pods - raw
Mustard, White Sinapis alba - sprouted, flavouring -
Nettle, Stinging Urtica dioica - sprouted -
Oak, Pedunculate Quercus robur - leached and cooked -
Orache, Common Atriplex patula - cooked -
Orache, Spear-leaved Atriplex hastata - cooked -
Parsnip, Wild Pastinaca sativa - flavouring -
Pea, Sea Lathyrus japonicus - cooked -
Pennycress, Field Thlaspi arvense - flavouring, sprouted
Persicaria, Pale Persicaria lapathifolia - raw -
Pine Pinus spp - raw
Plantain, Ribwort Plantago lanceolata - cooked
Plum, Cherry Prunus cerasifera - raw, if not bitter -
Plum, Wild Prunus domestica - raw, if not bitter -
Poppy, Common Papaver rhoeas - raw -
Radish, Wild Raphanus raphanistrum - oil- young pods - raw
Rape Brassica napus - oil, flavouring -
Redshank Polygonum persicaria - raw -
Reed, Common Phragmites australis - raw
Rose, Dog Rosa canina - details unknown -
Rush, Flowering Butomus umbellatus - details unknown
Ryegrass, Perennial Lolium perenne - flour-
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius - sprouted - safety unknown
Samphire, Rock Crithmum maritimum - pods - pickled -
Samphire, Marsh Salicornia europaea - oil -
Sedge, Pendulous Carex pendula - if free from ergot - cooked, flour
Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris - raw
Sorrel, Common Rumex acetosa - raw -
Spatterdock, Common Nuphar advena - raw
Spruce Picea spp. - raw
Spurrey, Corn Apergula arvensis - details unknown -
Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus - details unknown
Tare, Hairy Vicia hirsuta - cooked
Thistle, Cabbage Cirsium oleraceum - sprouted -
Thistle, Creeping Cirsium arvense - sprouted -
Thistle, Marsh Cirsium palustre - sprouted -
Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum - roasted, sprouted -
Thistle, Prickly Russian Salsola pestifer - cooked, sprouted
Thistle, Spear Cirsium vulgare - raw, sprouted -
Trefoil, Bird's-foot Lotus corniculatus - sprouted -
Valerian, Common Valeriana officinalis - details unknown -
Vetch, Bitter Lathyrus montanus - cooked -
Vetch, Bush Vicia sepium - cooked
Vetch, Common Vicia sativa - pods - cooked -
Vetch, Tufted Vicia cracca - cooked
Walnut Juglans regia - raw
Water-lily, White Nymphaea alba - cooked -
Watercress Nasturtium officinale - flavouring, sprouted -
Woundwort, Marsh Stachys palustris - details unknown